Industrial Democracy in Zimbabwe Essay

Industrial democracy has its origins in the theories of Kurt Lewin who strongly advocated the idea that the management of change requires full participation from those affected by change (Sambureni 2001). Sambureni further defines industrial democracy as ‘a process in which employees either directly or indirectly through their representatives, share equal power over the decision-making process which management normally reserves to itself’. Industrial democracy is also defined as ‘an arrangement which involves workers making decisions, sharing responsibility and authority in the workplace (www.wikipedia.org ).As can be deduced from the above definitions, the essential feature of industrial democracy is that it gives employees or their representatives a share in the process of management. It is against this background that this essay will examine the view that ‘there is industrial democracy in Zimbabwe’ using practical examples from Zimbabwean enterprise s. Since the settler occupation in 1890, in the hierarchical order of Rhodesia, the Black stood at the lowest level. As an African, one was subjected to the overall system of discrimination, as a worker, one was also a victim of particularregulations which prior to the Industrial Conciliation Act of 1959, prevented African workers from participating in the determination of their conditions of service by excluding them from the definition of ‘employee’ (Maphosa, 1991). The colonialists promulgated laws that repressed and suppressed workers, most notably, the Master and Servants Act, hence, the absence of industrial democracy. Upon attainment of independence, the government of Zimbabwe implemented policies to address the racial imbalancesthat were created by the colonial administration in terms of industrial relations to promote industrial democracy in workplaces. Sachikonye (1985) propounds that the existence of a Labour Courtin Zimbabwe is clear testimony of the presence of industrial democracy in Zimbabwe. It is an appeal court for a variety of labour disputes. The Labour Courtprotects workers’ rights to the extent where some writers claim that workers in Zimbabwe are ‘over-protected’ by the law. This claim is supported by various cases, one of which is the case where Air Zimbabwe Senior Managers relieved of their duties in 2009 and took up their matter to the Labour Court were awarded one hundred thousand United States dollars exit packages for each manager. This is industrial democracy at its best though some critics may find it too harsh a ruling on the part of the employer who might face financial challenges caused by the unexpected expense and leaves the employer with no right to dismiss employees as the dismissed employees will appeal through the labour court which always rules against the employer.However, an International LabourOrganisation (ILO) audit carried out by Lovemore Madhukunotes that awards and judgements by the Labour Court are not immediately enforceable as they have to be registered with the High Court. Some reformists have suggested that the Labour Court should be made the court of final appeal in all labour matters and be empowered to enforce its own decisions.The audit also notes that there are no time limits prescribed for making judgements. This was contrasted with other countries where time limits, the most c ommon being 30 and 90 days are stipulated.In this case, justice delayed is justice denied thereby violating the principles of industrial democracy. According to the Constitution of Zimbabwe (2013), except for members of the Security Services, every person in Zimbabwe has the right to form and join Trade Unions and employee and employers’ organisations of their choice and to participate in the lawful activities of those unions and activities. The right to form or join or participate in the activities of a trade union is protected by both the Constitution of Zimbabwe and the Labour Relations Act (Madhuku, 2009). This supports the view that there is industrial democracy in Zimbabwe as it gives employee or employer organisations the right to engage in collective bargaining, organise and form and join federations of such unions and organisations. Examples of Trade unions in Zimbabwe include Zimbabwe Congress of Trade Unions (ZCTU) which is the dominant central Trade Union in Zimbabwe, the Zimbabwe Teachers’ Association (ZIMTA) the largest and most influential Teachers’ organisation and the Zimbabwe Federation of Trade Unions (ZFTU) made up of professionals in labour management, disputes and tribunal settlements among others. It is notable to mention though that in practice, members of independent trade Union organisations face harassment and intimidation from government forces and it is extremely difficult for them to carry out any Trade Union activities. Although the High Court ruled in April 2002 that the ZCTU does not need permission from the police to hold private meetings, the police have continued to interfere with its meetings, for example, on January 10 2006, armed police raided ZCTU offices confiscating computer discs and files and the government claimed to have launched an investigation into allegations of financial mismanagement by trade union leaders but ZCTU President Lovemore Matombo said it was a political move to silence the union by discrediting its leadership, hence, violating the ethics of industrial democracy. The enactment of the Labour Relations Act of 1985 in Zimbabwe bears witness to the presence of industrial democracy. The Act, according to Sambureni (2001) created a framework for the exercise of fundamental rights of workers that include termination of employment, retrenchment, dispute settlement process and HIV and AIDS regulations, unfair labour practices, minimum and maximum wages, creates a framework for collective bargaining as a source of terms and conditions of employment and also vests the dispute handling powers with the Ministry of Labour to deal with work-related disputes through mediation, conciliation and arbitration. In this case, however, one can argue that state intervention in the form of legislated minimum wages or maximum salaries has in part contributed to ineffectual worker participation in managerial decision making. In some sectors, for example the Apex Council of Public Sector Unions, the Public Service ministry set parameters within which salary increases ca n be negotiated. Such parameters constitute limits to the nature and extent of both management decision-making and workers participation in it, and hence, limits the values of industrial democracy. Another indicator by the government of Zimbabwe to promote industrial democracy is the right of workers to be represented at a disciplinary hearing, which is a fundamental principle of natural justice (Kanyenze, 2001). Section (4) (b) of Statutory Instrument 15 of 2006 entitles an employee appearing before the employer or disciplinary authority to be represented by either a fellow employee, Workers’ Committee member, Trade Union official or Legal Practitioner. All company codes of conduct and National Employment Council codes in Zimbabwe provide for the right to representation in their procedures. In the case of Vice Chancellor, University of Zimbabwe vsMutasa (1993) which involved the expulsion of three students from the University of Zimbabwe, the issue of legal representation was dealt with. However, in Minerals Marketing Corporation of Zimbabwe (MMCZ) vs John Mazvimavi (SC295/95), former Justice Anthony Gubbay left the right to legal representation as an open question as the labour Tribunal had ruled that MMCZs refusal to permit John Mazvimavi to be legally represented amounted to a violation of the principles on natural justice and the main beliefs of industrial democracy. As regards discrimination, the Labour Relations Act of Zimbabwe stipulates that no employer or person shall discriminate against any employee or prospective employee on grounds of race, tribe, place of origin, political opinion, colour, creed or sex in relation to the advertisement of employment, recruitment for employment, creation or abolition of jobs, the choice of persons for jobs or posts, training advancement, apprenticeships, transfer, promotion or retrenchment and any other matter related to employment. This clearly confirms the view that there is industrial democracy in Zimbabwe. However, cases of discrimination on grounds of one’s HIV status still exist in the Army, Health sector and the Civil Aviation Authority of Zimbabwe were employees are expected to undergo HIV tests periodically and these have a bearing on the working conditions of the employee. If the employee is found to be HIV positive, then some of their duties and responsibilities may be scrapped off their job description. It has been stated by a leading labour lawyer that, ‘There can be no equilibrium in industrial relations without a freedom to strike’ (Madhuku, 2009). In protecting that freedom, the law protects the legitimate expectations of workers that they can make use of their collective power. The new Zimbabwe constitution has a bill of rights that gives unconditional rights to strike by employees.The right to strike cannot be separated from collective bargaining as strikes are only justifiable for purposes of maintaining equilibrium in labour relations, that is, for collective bargaining purposes. In this regard, one can safely say that there is industrial democracy in Zimbabwe. However, although the Labour Relations Act recognises the right to strike, there are many procedural hurdles, including the fact that more than 50 percent of the employees must vote for a strike, followed by a 30 day conciliation period and possible referral to binding arbitration and then a 14 day advance notice period (Kanyenze, 2011). The sum effect of these delaying tactics is that it is practically impossible to organise a legal strike. In Zimbabwe Teachers Association and Others vs Minister of Education and Culture, government’s purported dismissal of striking teachers who had defied its orders to return to work was held by the High Court to be unlawful as the dismissed Teachers had not been given an opportunity to be heard. In conclusion, the essay has highlighted some evidence of industrial democracy in Zimbabwean enterprises, though the cases are not exhaustive as issues to do with amendments to the new constitution, National Employment Council and notice of hearing within 48 hours have not been discussed. The essay has also highlighted some cases where industrial democracy is compromised, for example issues to do with the right to strike and determination of minimum wages. One can therefore conclude that industrial democracy partially exists in Zimbabwe. REFERENCES Kanyenze, G. (2011) Beyond the enclave: Towards a pro-poor and inclusive development strategy for Zimbabwe, African Books Collective Madhuku, L, and Sambureni, N, T., Labour Law (Zimbabwe Open University Module Maphosa, G, J., (1991) Industrial democracy in Zimbabwe?Zambezia Sachikonye, L, M., (1985) Labour Legislation in Zimbabwe: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives Sambureni, N, T. (2001) Industrial and Labour Relations www.wikipedia.org

Life is what you make it Essay

A little boy called Andy was asked to audition with his classmates for a part in the school play. His mother knew that he had his heart set on being in the play and she was worried about how he would react if he wasn’t chosen. On the day that the parts were given out, Andy’s mother went to the school to collect him feeling anxious about the outcome. Seeing his mother Andy rushed up to her, his eyes were shining with pride and excitement. â€Å"Guess what Mum,† he shouted, and then said the words that can provide a lesson to us all, â€Å"I’ve been chosen to clap and cheer.† Understanding and knowing that you are so much more in control of your lives than you sometimes believe is not only reassuring, it is empowering. The way that you think determines the way that you feel and is the control pad for the volume of happiness that you can experience. The quality of your thinking essentially determines the quality of your life. Think about this †¦. Did you know that you have 60 – 80,000 thoughts a day ? Yesterday I had a thought. That thought became an emotion That emotion turned into words, the words fuelled action, The actions became a habit. My habits are my Character, My Character defines my destiny. Today, therefore, I’ll think about my thoughts a little more. The power of positive thinking Thinking positively is not about putting your head in the sand, nor is it  about being unrealistic. By developing a positive attitude you still recognise the negative aspects of a situation, however you choose to focus on the hope and opportunity that is available. This approach helps you to avoid getting locked into a paralysing loop of bad feeling and allows you to move on quickly and take action to solve problems and embrace life’s challenges of which we inevitably experience. This quote says it all! â€Å"Whether you are an optimist or a pessimist might not affect the outcome, it’s just that the optimist has a better time in life!† James Borg – Mindpower The term â€Å"PMA† is all about having a positive mental attitude. Many books about personal success or self-improvement start with a sharp focus on cultivating energy, enthusiasm and optimism in all areas of your life.. Developing a positive attitude is the key to health and happiness. Sustaining a positive attitude Creating and maintaining a positive attitude is the most efficient and low-cost investment you can make in order to improve your life. A positive way of thinking is a habit and needs to be learned through repetition and conscious effort on your part. Positive affirmations to condition your mind can be very useful. Saying things to yourself like: I am an optimistic, hopeful, positive thinking person. Yes I accept that bad things can happen in my life, however I choose to look for positive opportunities and outcomes in every situation. A positive attitude is not dependent upon your genetic composition even if you are pre-disposed to negative thinking you can learn to move your thinking to the positive side. This depends entirely upon you and how you choose to think. How to be more positive about your life Avoid negative attitude germs Let me ask you a question. If you had a really bad cold or flu would you walk over to someone and sneeze in their face? Hopefully not!  So let me ask you another question. Have you ever had a bad day when someone or something has annoyed or upset you and you have felt the need to get it off your chest and have a good old moan to someone about it? I am sure that we have all been guilty of that from time to time. You are, in effect, spreading your NAGs – Negative Attitude Germs. You may have noticed that when you are with someone who is suffering from a physical or emotional problem, you feel bad too. It’s often described as catching their emotion. Researchers have observed this actually happening in real time in the brain, using an advanced MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) machine. It shows the brain of Person A reflects activity in the same area as Person B when they are in close proximity. The scientific term for this is neural mirroring. This does, therefore, point out the danger of hanging around negative, pessimistic people if you prefer to be positive and optimistic. Choose to be a radiator Some people you meet are like drains: negative, listless doom goblins and when we come into contact with them they drain us of energy. They like to tell you about all their negative news and prefer to play the victim, wallowing in the â€Å"poor me† mentality. These are the people who when you ask them how they are they will respond with their shoulders slumped, eyelids drooped â€Å"Well you know †¦ I feel really †¦ bad!† and then they will give you a graphic blow by blow account of all their woes and feelings of impending  doom! You may well know people like this. Perhaps it is a behaviour you indulge in? Perhaps we all do from time to time however does it really do us any favours? Other people, however, are like radiators – full of warmth and vitality. We feel positively energised by them. They appear bright and radiant, look you in the eye and when you ask them how they are, they smile and tell you something positive. It is amazing how some people are so intent on being negative. I wonder whether they get up some days and plan to go into work to â€Å"drain the radiators†! You may well know people like this. It might even be a behaviour that you indulge in yourself. If so, next time you find yourself doing this ask yourself how you will positively benefit from actively choosing this mind set. Take personal responsibility The antidote for negativity is that you learn to accept responsibility for your situation. The very act of taking responsibility cancels out any negative emotion that you may trigger. By embracing responsibility you will reap many rewards. The successes brought by this attitude acts as a foundation for selfrespect, pride and confidence. Responsibility breeds competence and personal power. By living up to your promises and obligations, you will win the trust of others. Once you are seen as trustworthy, people will willingly work with you and want to be with you. Making excuses can put the brakes on our progress, while accepting responsibility can lead us more towards succeed. It can be easy to blame others or circumstances for everything in our lives – past, present or future. It lets us off the hook to some degree. However, ultimately it doesn’t help us because we become a prisoner of circumstance and allow everything and everyone around us to dictate our world. Positively learn from mistakes Making mistakes is human and we can’t get everything right all the time. To increase your rate of success you will have to be willing to accept that you will make mistakes along the way, the skill is that you positively learn from them. Certainly some of the best learning and character building experiences I have been through are on the back of mistakes. Mistakes are the portals of discovery James Joyce Putting your hand in the air and saying â€Å"yes I recognise I made a mistake or I am responsible for that and this is what I am going to do to improve the situation† is actually quite liberating.  For example admitting when we get something wrong and saying I’m sorry can relieve a great deal of tension in any relationship. Humble pie can actually taste quite nice! It isn’t poisonous. It is a real skill to be brave enough to admit when you don’t get something right and have the humility to accept it, admit and then positively move on. Just because you mistakes it doesn’t make you a lesser person or inferior to others. Also if you never make mistakes, how do you learn? No-one can make you feel inferior without your consent Life can be an interesting and challenging journey and granted you may well get a little travel sick along the way and you may even hit a few pot holes. However, by developing a positive attitude you will be much better equipped to be able to deal with everything so much better. It takes practise and  certainly there will be days when you really struggle to see the sun for the clouds. You may even decide you want to wallow a little and that is ok. The question though, is for how long? Life is what you make it and what makes your life worth living is your own personal voyage of discovery. We are all people in progress with so much undiscovered potential. How exciting and wonderful is that? Life is what you make it – Top Tips The first step to happiness is to make a conscious decision to be happy Choose to be an optimist not a pessimist Actively seek out opportunities instead of problems Think more consciously about what you think about Address any negative attitude germs that you may be spreading Choose to be a radiator not a drain Avoid blaming other people Learn from your mistakes and positively move on Take personal responsibility for all your actions Remember this is your life and your life is what you make it About the author Liggy Webb is widely respected as a leading expert in the field of Modern Life Skills. As a presenter, consultant and author she is passionate about her work and helping to improve the quality of people’s lives. Her new book How to be Happy (Published by Capstone) is due out in August 2012. It will be available on Amazon and in all book stores. Email info@liggywebb.com to order a first edition signed copy. This makes an ideal gift and can be gift wrapped if requested at no extra charge. Liggy Webb explains how we can achieve a happier and more positive life and  backs up her theory with some great evidence and advice. Paul O’Neill, Vice President, Guinness World Records Commercial This is a life enhancing book that will undoubtedly bring greater and longer lasting happiness to every reader’ Richard Denny, International Business Growth Specialist, Speaker and Author

Strategic Management Degree Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Strategic Management Degree - Case Study Example The Company has started manufacturing some of the products such as dairy and baking items. The products available at Wal-Mart are a symbol of quality and variety. Price: "There is a very sensitive relationship between price and the placement of a product. Cheap is easy to sell, or so says history, but expensive can be easy to sell too" (Barac, 2005). Lower prices and discount offerings are the cutting edge benefits of the company. "The giant retailer's low prices often come with a high cost. Wal-Mart's relentless pressure can crush the companies it does business with and force them to send jobs overseas. (Fishman, 2003) Placement: The presence of the Wal-Mart stores at every important place in the country is the evidence of the effective placement of the stores. Wal-Mart is getting by having a dense network of stores is to facilitate the logistics of deliveries. People: Wal-Mart is famous for its effective recruiting and training of the staff. Although the company remains in news for its controversial policies sex discrimination and labour law violations but the customers are catered with efficient services and best knowledge provision by the staff. The depth of Wal-Mart's management team allows the managers to tap into tremendous internal talent. Physical evidence: Physical evidence is an essential ingredient of the service mix, consumers will make perceptions based on their sight of the service provision which will have an impact on the organisations perceptual plan of the service. The environment at the Wal-Mart stores are clean and user friendly which adds to the uniqueness and competitive advantage of Wal-Mart. Word count: 418 References Barac, R., The Marketing Mix: The 4P's, The Basics, 16 December 2005, retrieved as on June 13, 2006 from http://www.marketingroots.net/p=4 Fishman, C., (2003). Wal-Mart you don't know, Issue 77, December 2003, Page 68Q2: Compare and contrast promotional mixes or communications strategies of two companies. How can a change of positioning affect the effectiveness of the companies' strategies. Promotion is aimed at informing customers about the presence of the goods or services in the market and persuading them to buy these products and services. For a promotional campaign to be effective it is important for the company to use most effective combination of the communication channel to reach the consumers. The best blend of these channel is Advertising, Personal selling, Publicity and sales promotion. Another trend, which is gaining importance, is the societal marketing concept. In this age of environmental deterioration, declining resources, increasing population and increasing economic and social issues, the awareness in the people is also increasing. Most of the companies are now aiming towards satisfying the customers and improving the society's well being. The two

International Supply Chain Management (Sourcing Strategies) Essay

International Supply Chain Management (Sourcing Strategies) - Essay Example As a result of near-shoring activities, enhancement of cultural affinity takes place which acts as a boon to the modern businesses with respect to their value chain activities. The cultural affinity being developed provides strong prospect for the long-term relationship development among the various entities of the supply chain. As a result of this, the supply functions of the companies enhance up to a considerable extent. Finally, it is worthy to mention that the new approach of near-shoring as a sourcing strategy offers cost advantages to the companies. The proximity of time zone allows the companies to reduce the extra amount of work required to match with the time of the entity in other ends of the supply chain. The cultural affinity leads to reduced amount of time spend upon the cycles required for reaching a consensus (Neoris Practical Visionaries, 2010). However, the activities within near-shoring strategy for sourcing are not without risk associated with it. Although it is be tter to go for near-shoring than off-shoring as according to the contemporary managers, near-shoring cannot lead the companies towards achievement of goal when applied alone. A combination of off-shoring, onsite and near-shoring would provide better result than being used alone. Thus, instead of determining the advantage of near-shoring over off-shoring, it would be beneficial for the contemporary mangers to identify the most effective combination through which goals can be achieved (Bell, 2005). On-Shoring Along with near-shoring, on-shoring has also been evolving as an innovative concept in the businesses where efficient supervision of supply... This essay stresses that the opportunity cost associated with outsourcing at times triggers the interest among the companies to remain preset to this process. This is because through outsourcing the production units can derive the advantage of lower production costs in the developing nations of the world which would not be possible with the process of in-sourcing. Another noticeable disadvantage of in-sourcing is that the focus of the company gets deviated from its core competencies because of in-sourcing. In-sourcing might bring about the necessity of concentrating upon certain activities like that of IT in which the company is not expert at. In such a situation, the time, the efforts and the resources that will be spend over activities other than the core activities would be considered as extra amount of cost This paper makes a conclusion that development of various combinations of the modern sourcing strategies would be essential. The companies can then adopt various means of assessing each of the combinations in a critical way. The combination that anticipates the most effective output for the companies should be selected. These actions of the companies in relation to the adoption of one best sourcing strategy are helpful for both the short-term as well as the long-term prospects of the companies. This is because effectiveness of the sourcing strategies leads towards enhanced competency of the supply functions of the companies which is a competitive aspect in the context of the modern businesses.

The Changing Price of Oil and Its Impact on the American Consumers Essay

The Changing Price of Oil and Its Impact on the American Consumers - Essay Example In the words of Lionel Robbins (1898-1984), Head of the Economics Department at the LSE: "Economics is a science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses." (Robbins, 2007,3). This scarcity definition proposed by Lionel Robbins in 1923 reflects the fact that we have to make economic choices in daily life. Economic goods may be defined as those that are relatively scarce, have value and command a price. The price of a particular good or commodity as always is determined by the laws of demand and supply. Demand may be defined as the amount of a particular economic good or service that a consumer or group of consumers will want to purchase at a given price (www.about.com). Supply may be defined as the total amount of a product (good or service) that is available for purchase at a given price (www.investorwords.com). It is the interaction of the forces of demand and supply in a marketplace that determines the price of a produ ct at any given time. Price is the quantity of payment or compensation given by one party to another in return for goods and services. We talk of individual demand when we refer to a particular transaction made by a buyer or seller at a given price. We speak of aggregate demand when we talk of the entire demand of the world buyers for a particular commodity, in this case, oil. This aggregate demand is thus the sum of demand for oil by all the countries interested in buying this commodity from a certain supplier at a given point in time. The biggest supplier of oil in the world market is a consortium or group of producers called OPEC or the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, an intergovernmental group of presently 12 oil producers. The graph below shows the price of Brent Crude oil per barrel for the four weeks beginning 07 November 2011 and ending on 07 December 2011. Price is indicated on the vertical axis and the time period on the horizontal axis of the graph. From th e movement of oil prices on the graph, we can see that Brent Crude hit a high of $116 on 08 November 2011, probably as the war in Libya was still raging between Gaddafi loyalists and forces opposing the decadent regime. Ultimately as the liberating forces gained the upper hand, Gadaffi was captured from a sewer in his hometown of Sirte. Still, the battle raged on for a few days more as forces loyal to the former leader took their last stand. The OPEC nations meanwhile had temporarily increased their supply to the world in the light of the fact that access to Libyan oil, which totals 5 percent of the world supply, was unavailable during this period. There is a drop in oil price to $107 per barrel on 17 November 2011 as the world debate on what to do in post-war Libya was finalized and funds were released to the emerging leadership and the commander of the liberating forces was even invited to France to talk with Sarkozy and other leaders. Once it was clear that a transition to democr acy was on the cards and there was no danger of further insurgencies or threat of an Islamist radical group taking over, Libya was given its funds, sanctions were lifted and supplies of oil to the world could be resumed. Meanwhile, as Iran and Syria face increasing sanctions, they would like to keep the price of oil as high as possible.

Catherine Mansfield Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Catherine Mansfield - Essay Example As the report declares looking deeper in the human behavior and trying to see the important details, her short stories had a didactic particularity. This happens with the short story: â€Å"Sixpence†. The story is a didactic one, but not as we might think at the beginning. The writer portraits two types of parents behavior. A little boy, Dicky, does not behave properly one day, just when his mother has a guest. This was a very strange fact, because he usually was â€Å"good as gold as a rule, sensitive, affectionate, obedient and marvelously sensible for his age†. This paper stresses that the child makes a mistake and the guest, Mrs. Spears, gives his mother an advice: the only punishment is the whipping. This contradicts his mother’s opinions, because when she said punishment she was not referring to beating. And here comes the two types of behavior, or we could extend the two types of parents. Mrs. Spears sons were very quiet, permitting their mother to give credit to her theory about punishment. Dicky’ s mother does not agree to the beating, but she let herself convinced by her friend’ words. The children themselves were very different and Dicky was the one that had a normal behavior for his age. He was gentle and sensitive, but sometimes he was acting foolishly, maybe because a child’s energy is too big and cannot be hold in. Mrs. Spears sons were not acting right for some children, they were too calm and quite.

The Electricity Reforms in Chile Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

The Electricity Reforms in Chile - Essay Example During the late 1970s and early 1980s most of the earlier nationalized firms were being given back to their earlier owners and massive government companies, for instance electricity firms were enticed to trade on a commercial basis. Government firms were breaking even and by the late 70s and early 80s there were indications that electricity firms specially showed improving rates of return on capital. The macro economy and most of the major economic indicators started to indicate substantial improvement. Inflation dropped and GDP started to grow at a considerable pace especially after 1985. This healthy economic trend grew further during the late 1980s and accelerated further to 6.2 p.a. during the early 1990s. The electricity reforms in Chile follow most of the features found in the electricity systems of developed nations. Since Chile has a small population (15.5m in 2002), thus the capability to take advantage of economies of scale, if at all is moderate2. Even though Chile's electricity consumption per person is low when compared to developed countries, it is increasing fast at (6% per annum). The electricity making system has a big installed hydro capacity base, however as demand rises fossil fuels have become more vital. Most probably there is a difference between Chile and other developing countries as the strength due to the fact that it was administered by military rule for a long time. 2. Analysis i. Reform in electricity - History The Electricity Act enacted in 1982 is up to now the most vital legislation in the sector. In January 2004 there were some significant changes to the regulations governing the sector after the passage of Lay Corta. The electricity sector inChilebasically depends on thermal and hydro power generation. Shortage of natural gas led the government to increase the supply by building a first liquefied gas terminal with more capacity of generation. The new project started in the year 2007. Re-gasification plant terminal near the capital city ofSantiagois intended to increase and stabilize power supply for its existing and projected gas-fired thermal plants. There was a consideration to further expand the constructions in various new hydropower and coal-fired thermal plants. Chile's electricity sector reform was very efficiently implemented by the authorities and because of the success of the reforms many other governments followed the same to improve power generation in their respective countries3. Figure 4: Chile's Natural Gas Total Consumption (2003) - Total Annual Demand 8.73 BCM Source: www.lyd.com/english/noticias/restructuring.ppt -Chile4 Adaptation of many initiatives like vertical and horizontal unbundling ofpower generation, regular transmissionanddistributionand large scale privatization brought billions of institutional investment to the electricity sector due to electricity shortage of the country5. The 1982 Electricity Act was amended three times in 1999, 2004 and 2005 respectively in Chile's parliament. Even though during the 1980s there weren't many markets from which Chileans could draw inspiration, the officials visited UK, France and Belgium. From the knowledge gained from these countries they came up with the idea of separate generation and distribution firms where payment was done in accordance with a formula based on cost. This apart they also came up with a dispatch

Explain and evaluate de Beauvoir's critique of patriarchal man-woman Essay

Explain and evaluate de Beauvoir's critique of patriarchal man-woman relations - Essay Example There is a proverb which says that â€Å"Men make houses, women make homes!† (Metin, 2011). This very proverb points out the fact that relationship between men and woman is quite mutual. If the men acquire houses for their family, then women with their love and care make it a home. Yet one has always seen that relationship between men and woman comprising of love as well as conflicts. The paper here seeks to examine the patriarchal man- woman relationship with reference to an evaluation of de Beauvoir’s critique of this concept and her notion of woman as the other. Disparities between men and women: different views Man and women are the creations of God, and each has been endowed with different features. Their existence is mutual in nature because active participation of both is required to build and sustain the next generation. However one often comes across situations where women are considered to be imperfect and weaker compared to their male counterpart. Generally, in a male dominated society it is believed that women are completely unfit to lead an independent life and hence she has to be under the supervision of men. The topic of dissimilarity between men and women was also seen during the time of Plato and Aristotle. Plato believed that the disparity in men and women were quantitative in nature, that is, women were considered to be physically and mentally weaker than men. ... Even the Old Testament believes that man and woman are made of the same flesh and blood but they differ in terms of their views, needs, and other things (Women and her Rights, n.d). The relationship between man and woman has various dimensions. They can be as friends, as spouses or as siblings. According to Marx, the relationship between man and woman is essential. This is so because need is an indication for essence. If we need something then it plays a crucial role in our development and in realizing our essence. It is through need that one can understand that their requirement is related to them: in fact it is a part of their essence. Similarly, man and woman are considered to be an essence for each other. This is so because they need each other to give birth to build up the future generation (Kain, 1993, p.323). Patriarchal man-woman relations The relationship between man and woman had gone through many changes with the passage of time. Even in ancient civilizations one can see v ariations in this relationship. In some cases women were given equal importance and in many cases one would come across a patriarchal society. In case of civilizations which were agricultural in nature, one would find that they had always underestimated the potential of women and their society had been patriarchal in nature. Such type of society is built on the assumption that the reigns of political, economic, and cultural life was in the hands of the man. Here after marriage the woman was expected to act in accordance to her husband’s wishes. As women were considered to lack certain features which were possessed by men so they were subjugated in their relationship. Not all agricultural economy had the same patriarchal conditions. If conditions were stringent in the

Pharmaceutical microbiology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Pharmaceutical microbiology - Essay Example Development and maintenance of a sterile compounding are complete with sterilized equipment and supplies. Aseptic technique is a means of manipulating sterile products without contaminating them. Proper use of a LAH and strict aseptic technique are the most important factors in preventing the contamination of sterile products Contamination is a basic in introduction of antibiotic resulting into need for aseptic techniques .the techniques is designed to prevent access of the drug by the unnecessary substances and this is a risk associated with contamination which may include; The air, air that is not sterilize may contain bacteria e.g. micrococci, bacillus and clostridium. And these are pathogenic and may access the drug during production; the staff involved may also risk the drug by introducing bacteria especially which may eject droplets into the air compromising the properties of the drug. The skin may be contaminated especially most of the hand s by handling non sterilize product which are not sterilize and machines and these may then transfer the pathogen to the drug during preparation risking its purity. The clothing used during aseptic preparation should be sterilized less they risk the status of the products they produce, before starting the production, the laundry should be done to eliminate the dust that may be carried into the preparation room and the sleeve should be rolled above the elbow so that they do not pick any foreign bodies from surfaces which are not clean. Before taking any procedure in preparation in the production room through aseptic, the surfaces of the working benches should be sterilized using a bactericidal solution to minimize the risk that the drug may be exposed to. Sealing reduces the risk of the drug to contamination, used of fused ampules is much preferred which are the sterilized after sealing ,the product is then expected to remain

Mary Parker Follett Essay Example for Free

Mary Parker Follett Essay The newest addition to the collection of books about Mary Parker Follett is a contribution by Joan C. Tonn entitled Mary P. Follett: Creating Democracy, Transforming Management (BUS stack HN57.T695 2003) The press release for this book is available here. Recently a new book about an older management theorist arrived in the Business Library. Published by the Harvard Business School Press, the contributors included Drucker, Mintzberg, Bennis and Kanter. Perhaps it was because the book was published by that press with comments by those people, that the subject attracted more attention than usual. The title of the book is Mary Parker Follett Prophet of Management: A Celebration of Writings from the 1920s (BUS stack HD31.M334 1995) and the subject is obviously Follett who was a social theorist earlier in this century. A considerable amount has been written about Follett and her theories concerning organizations and management. Since the material is scattered over a long period and across different academic disciplines, this brief introduction and bibliography is designed to help you quickly find material relating to the mother of management theory. Obviously the place to begin is with the new collection of her writings mentioned above. It also contains evaluations of her positions, a useful epilogue by Paul Lawrence and a bibliography of Folletts writings. For a brief biographical sketch see the appendix in Integrative Management: Creating Unity from Diversity, by Pauline Graham (HD 38.G68) as well as the essay by Graham in Mary Parker Follett Prophet of Management (BUS stack HD 31.M334) which she edited. For an earlier biographical piece see Vol. 4 of theInternational Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, Follett, Mary Parker (DBW reference H 41.I58). The University of Western Ontario has a solid collection of material by and about Follett and there have been some works about her that were produced on this campus. In 1992, David Hurst wrote an article for Business Quarterly with the title: Thoroughly Modern Mary Parker Follett (Vol. 56, No.4, Spring). Two masters theses have also originated here and they reflect the inter-disciplinary nature of Folletts work: Science and Service: M.P. Follett and the Profession of Educational Administration by A.M.H. van den Heuvel (EDU stack AS42.L85.V265) and Mary Parker Follett: An Application of Her Management Theories to Educational Administration by Lorraine Vanderkerckhove (EDU stack AS 42.L85.V29). WORKS BY MARY PARKER FOLLETT Creative Experience (BUS stack BF 57.F6 1951; DBW stack BF 408.R67 1970) Dynamic Administration: The Collected Papers of Mary Parker Follett [electronic resource] (BUS stack HF 5547. F6). Weldon has an additional copy of the 1941 edition. Additional copies can be requested from storage, including 1 copy of the 1965 edition. Freedom Co-ordination: Lectures in Business Organization (BUS stack HD 57.7.F66 1987). This work contains 6 lectures: The Illusion of Final Authority; The Giving of Orders; The Basis of Authority; The Essentials of Leadership; Co-ordination and The Process of Control. The last essay is also found in another volume available here at Western: Papers on the Science of Administration, ed. by Gulick and Urwick, p.159 (JF 1351.G8). The New State Group Organization, the Solution for Popular Government (DBW stack JC336.F57 1918). The Speaker of the House of Representatives [electronic resource] (DBW stack JK 1411.F67 1896). For recent samples and discussions of Folletts works see: Management Theory: From Taylorism to Japanization (BUS stack HD31.S22); Writing About Business and Industry (DBW stack HF5718.3.W74 1995);Management and Gender: Issues and Attitudes (BUS stack HD6054.4.U6K37 1994); Management and Organizational Behavior Classics (BUS stack HD31.M2917 1993); Great Writers on Organizations (DBW stack HM131.P74 1993); International Management Handbook (HD62.4.T47) and Classics of Organization Theory (DBW stack HD31.C56 1992). SELECTED WORKS ABOUT MARY PARKER FOLLETT In addition to some of the sources noted above, articles about Follett may be found by searching electronic databases such as Proquest. Articles that pre-date the electronic databases may be found by searching a variety of print indexes; some articles are noted below and others may be found quickly by looking at the M.A. theses noted above. Follett has also been the subject of many doctoral dissertations and they may be quickly located by searching Proquests Dissertations Theses. Two dissertations that can be consulted are: Mary Parker Follett: Pioneer in Organizational Theory by Linda Brown (HD31.F667B76) and Scientific Management and Administrative Reform in Education by Kathleen Schwartz (HD 30.12.S39). Sibyl of a Modern Science, Business Week, Nov. 21, 1964, p.96 Mary Parker Follett, Civic Leader Dies, obituary, New York Times, Dec. 21, 1933, p.21, col.1 (DBWMFM AN 2.N5) Mary Parker Follett: The Enduring Contribution, Public Administration Review,Vol.28, No.6, 1968, p. 520 (DBWPER JK1.P85) No occupation can make a more worthy appeal to the imagination either from the point of view of service it can perform, or from the tremendous interest in the job itself, than business management. MPF. Mary Parker Follett Facts: Known for: pioneering ideas introducing human psychology and human relations into industrial management Occupation: social worker, management theory writer and speaker Dates: 1868-1933 Mary Parker Follett Biography: Modern management theory owes a lot to a nearly-forgotten woman writer, Mary Parker Follett. Mary Parker Follett was born in Quincy, Massachusetts. She studied at the Thayer Academy, Braintree, Massachusetts, where she credited one of her teachers with influencing many of her later ideas. In 1894, she used her inheritance to study at the Society for Collegiate Instruction of Women, sponsored by Harvard, going on to a year at Newnham College, Cambridge, in 1890. She studied on and off at Radcliffe as well, starting in the early 1890s. In 1898, Mary Parker Follett graduated summa cum laude from Radcliffe. Her research at Radcliffe was published in 1896 and again in 1909 as The Speaker of the House of Representatives. Mary Parker Follett began working in Roxbury as a voluntary social worker in 1900. In 1908 she became chair of the Womens Municipal League Committee on Extended Use of School Buildings. In 1911, she and others opened the East Boston High School Social Center. She also helped found other social centers in Boston. In 1917, Mary Parker Follett took on the vice-presidency of the National Community Center Association, and in 1918 published her book on community, democracy, and government, The New State. Mary Parker Follett published another book, Creative Experience, in 1924, with more of her ideas about the creative interaction of people in group process. In 1926, she moved to England to live and work, and to study at Oxford. In 1928, Follett consulted with the League of Nations and with the International Labor Organization in Geneva. She lived in London from 1929 with Dame Katharine Furse of the Red Cross. In her later years, Mary Parker Follett became a popular writer and lecturer in the business world. She was a lecturer at the London School of Economics from 1933. Mary Parker Follett advocated for a human relations emphasis equal to a mechanical or operational empha sis in management. Her work contrasted with the scientific management of Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915) and evolved by Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, which stressed time and motion studies. Mary Parker Follett stressed the interactions of management and workers. She looks at management and leadership holistically, presaging modern systems approaches; she identifies a leader as someone who sees the whole rather than the particular. Follett was one of the first (and for a long time, one of the few) to integrate the idea of organizational conflict into management theory, and is sometimes considered the mother of conflict resolution. In a 1924 essay, Power, she coined the words power-over and power-with to differentiate coercive power from participative decision-making, showing how power-with can be greater than power-over. Do we not see now, she observed, that while there are many ways of gaining an external, an arbitrary power —- through brute strength, through manipulation, through diplomacy —- genuine power is always that which inheres in the situation? Mary Parker Follett died in 1933 on a visit to Boston. After her death, her papers and speeches were compiled and published in 1942 in Dynamic Administration, and in 1995, Pauline Graham edited a compilation of her writing in Mary Parker Follett: Prophet of Management. The New State was reissued in a new edition in 1998 with helpful additional material. Her work was mostly forgotten in America, and is still largely neglected in studies of the evolution of management theory, despite the accolades of more recent thinkers like Peter Drucker. Peter Drucker called her the prophet of management and his guru.

The Human Dive Reflex

The Human Dive Reflex INTRODUCTION: The dive reflex is portrayed as bradycardia caused by submerging an individuals head underwater. In diving vertebrates this occurs in a remarkable manner than compared to humans (Hurwitz Furedy 1986). A diving seal where baseline heart rate rises 100 beats to 10 beats per minute when diving would be an example of this (Hurwitz Furedy 1986). Bradycardia is stated as slow resting heart rate or pulse rate (Tortara Derrickson 2009). Accompanied bradycardia response to breath hold is advantageous for vertebrate as well as humans because it permits physiological processes to adjust to environmental change by redistributing blood flow from periphery (non-essential organs) to brain and other essential organs (Hurwitz et al 1986 Gooden 1994 ) The dive reflex depends on the autonomic control of the heart to begin proper responses, the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) sends impulses through the cardiac accelerator nerve and starts release of norephrine which increases contractility and hear t rate. However parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) works through vagus nerves which end in heart decreasing contractility of the heart by decreasing rate of spontaneous depolarization (Tortara Derrickson 2009). Producing bradycardia response requires the sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system to work antagonistically (Hurwitz Furedy 1984). Dive reflex consists of two stimuli; the stimulation of facial receptors which are responsive to cold and wetness (pressure receptors), and the voluntary or involuntary termination of breathing or a decrease PO2 (Gooden 1994). Facial stimulus travels through the trigeminal to integrated respiratory centre and cardiovascular centre inside medulla oblongata. Inhibitory neural signals generated by facial receptors inhibits respiratory centre consequently triggers termination of respiratory muscles such as the diaphragm and intercostals causing reflex apnoea in order to inhibit aspiration of water (Hiebert Burch 2003). In a ddition, inhibition of respiratory centre stimulates cardiovascular centre and therefore increases parasympathetic activity via vagus nerve to start bradycardia , and as well stimulates sympathetic activity to vasoconstrict arterioles in limbs and non essential organs for instance the skin, intestines, and kidney causing them to rely on anaerobic conditions (Hiebert Burch 2003).This non essential organ vasoconstriction allows the redirection of blood flow to the brain and heart, this guards the brain from injury by supplying as much as oxygen that is needed , and reducing the brains requirement for oxygen by cooling (Hiebert Burch 2003).The decrease in PO2 is sensed by the arterial chemoreceptors from involuntary or voluntary breath hold , stimulates the cardiovascular centre to signal the SNS and PNS to complete the same antagonist functions completed in respiratory inhibition stimulus(Hiebert Burch 2003). Also the expected Bradycardia when simulating dive can be unsuccessful du e to emotional reasons such as fear, being distracted, being embarrassed, or in eagerness to submerge out of water could induce tachycardia response (Gooden 1994). In addition the experiments accomplished will show the stimulus in dive reflex and the physiological reasons behind those reflexes will be discussed. METHOD: First of all the investigation was accomplished using a subject seated on lab stool with the same posture, with their head down, and elbows resting on the bench. Chart 5 was setup and a finger transducer was connected to the subjects index finger. The subject sat quietly to rest heart rate and distractions were kept to smallest amount to avoid false recordings .The subjects palms were facing up to diminish finger movement as a result reducing signal dampening of finger transducer while recording . Prior to undertaking the diving experiments the subject practiced their breath hold; the subject took two deep breaths but not maximal breaths before holding their breath for 30 seconds. Every experiment lasted 1 and half minutes with recordings showing heart rate per min at: rest, 1st 15 seconds of breath hold, 2nd 15 seconds of breath hold, and recovery. For each dive stimulation, this was expected. Prior to the experiments it was noted not to force the subject from simulating a dive or b reath hold if they feel unpleasant doing so. The effect of diving was experimented on using different water temperatures, and snorkelling equipment. The water basin was positioned in front of the subject seated in appropriate posture staying motionless (it was furthermore important for the subject to remain motionless during the experiment as this triggered further signal dampening while recording heart rate) .the subject would take a deep breath and exhale to some extent and submerge their face in water up to cheeks, and yet again heart rate would be recorded for 30 seconds. These events were used for every breath hold dive simulation. For a more detailed method refer to MEDSCI 205 laboratory manual page 35-39. For the analysis of results % change in heart rate was calculated using the equation below: % change The above graph shows the percentage change in heart rate from the effect of apnoea caused by water temperature and pressure changes. The graph above shows the effect of apnoea only on heart rate of the subject which indicates that holding breath has a apparent change in heart rate compared to holding breath in cold water. The above graph represents the percentage change in heart rate due to the effects of temperature. Discussion: Investigating all data gathered from the experiments draw together the fact that bradycardia was observed in most of them. In table 3 the subject showed an increase in heart rate in snorkelling, the standard dive and holding breathing in warm water. As reviewed in the introduction the reason may be due anxiety or distractions which lead to the beginning of tachycardia (Gooden 1994). Snorkelling (shown on table 3) showed a noteworthy increase in heart rate instead of a bradycardia response, the fact that literature proposes on immersing face in water the body must begin reflex apnoea and diving bradycardia (Gooden 1994). Also in resting pulse 1st standard dive the 1st 15 seconds showed an increase in heart rate followed by significant decrease to 69.68 beats per min. The rapid decrease in the 2nd 15 seconds was due to the importance of the body adapting to retain oxygen reserve to supply vital organs (Hurwitz Furedy 1984). Analysing breathing in water with snorkel vs. Holding breath in cold water showed there were not such significant heart rate differences between the two experiments conducted .In breathing in water with a snorkel, there was a steady increase and decrease in heart rate from 7.9 % 16.1% change, but these heart rate measurements were in range if of resting pulse 55.82 beats per min measured at the start of the experiment. In comparison holding breath in cold water showed expected decrease in heart rate from resting pulse by 7.8% decrease in first 15 seconds to 16.6% decrease in second 15 seconds. This experiment shows that voluntary apnoea by itself causes bradycardia through the decreasing levels of PO2 which triggers arterial chemoreceptors ,that sends stimulating the cardiovascular centre to start appropriate responses via the parasympathetic and sympathetic pathways working destructively (Hurwitz Furedy 1984). Snorkelling showed a change in heart rate by 7.9 % and 16.1%, but the reaction was an increase in heart rate than a likely decrease as assumed in literature (Hiebert Burch 2003). Voluntary facial immersions in water according to literature should usually stimuli pressure receptors in face and obstruct respiratory muscles to begin reflex apnoea and in addition stimuli sympathetic to constrain blood flow and stimuli cardiovascular centre to begin bradycardia during the dive is model (Hiebert Burch 2003). Additionally the simulated dive with cold water demonstrated a likely bradycardia response with a decrease change in heart by 7.8% and 16.6% this implies that the sensitivity of cold wet receptors on the face can add to Bradycardia, in effort to reduce oxygen expenditure (Hiebert Burch 2003).While evaluating heart rate values obtained from snorkelling and breath hold in cold water, the experiment showed the stabilizer effects of cold water on decreasing the heart rate and that facia l immersion should show a Bradycardia response. (Hiebert Burch 2003) (Pauler, Pokorski, Honda, Ahn et al 1990. From the analysis of results it can be agreed upon that holding breath in warm water has to some level, less change in heart rate, in the first 15 seconds heart rate increased by 1.3% and decreased by 0.79% in second 15 seconds with a significant 13.1% increase in heart rate in recovery phase well over the normal resting pulse 62.0 beats per min a probable cause may have been anticipation to submerge out of water (Hiebert Burch 2003). Cold water, in comparison demonstrated the expected Bradycardia by illustrating significant change in heart rate from resting pulse by 7.8% in first 15 seconds to 12.3% in second 15 seconds, then restoring back to the resting pulse in the recovery phase. This experiment additionally confirmed that facial receptors are sensitive to cold and that immersion in cold water will constantly associate with a strong decrease in heart rate (Pauler, Pokorski, Honda, Ahn et al 1990). Also the variation in heart rate between warm water and cold water dive simulatio ns point out that cold water has additive effects on heart rate reduction by apnoea (Hiebert Burch 2003). Cold water demonstrated the majority of significant change in heart rate compared to other cues. The probable cause of this would be facial immersion in cold water, as this leads to reducing metabolic functions in an effort to lower the oxygen demand to peripheral tissue caused from hypoxia and tissue cooling (Hiebert Burch 2003). It has been stated by literature, that the higher the temperature the lower bradycardia responses expected the lower the temperature the higher the bradycardia responses expected (Gooden 1994). The second highest change in heart rate was shown in snorkelling which was not expected. The expected result was a small decrease in heart rate to explain pressure / wet receptors stimuli bradycardia (Hiebert Burch 2003).Holding breath in air showed the expected change in heart rate. The other cues experimented showed the added effects to breath hold will increase bradycardia compared to breath hold alone. Also warm water had showed small change in heart rate this pr oposed that it has little or no added effect to dive reflex response. Conclusion In conclusion in all cues experimented with breath hold and facial immersion a commencement bradycardia was observed this proposed that breath hold or apnoea plays an important role in the dive reflex. In addition facial immersion in cold water was established to be the most powerful stimulus of dive reflex.

Essay --

HIV: The Unveiling of the Virus Scientists believe HIV originated from a chimpanzee in Western Africa. The best approved theory about the source of HIV is that it is a descendant of a related virus, Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV), which infects monkeys (Perlin, David, and Cohen, Ann, 2002, 79-92). People may have come in contact with HIV from hunting and eating infected animals (Perlin, David, and Cohen, Ann, 2002, 79-92). The earliest known case of infection with HIV in a human was identified in a blood sample collected in 1959 from a man in Democratic Republic of the Congo. Genetic analysis of this blood sample suggested that HIV-1 may have expanded from a single virus in the late 1940s to early 1950s (â€Å"The AIDS Institute.org,† 2011). Background Information In 1982, public health officials began to use the name acquired immunodeficiency syndrome or AIDS, to describe the occurrences of opportunistic infections, Kaposi's sarcoma, and Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in previously healthy people. Formal tracking of AIDS cases also began in the United States In 1982. In 1983, scientists discovered the virus that caused AIDS. The virus was first named HTLV-III/LAV (human T-cell lymphotropic virus type III/lymphadenopathy associated virus) by an international scientific committee. The name for HIV was later changed to Human Immunodeficiency Virus (â€Å"The AIDS Institute.org,† 2011). There are two species of the virus, HIV-1 and HIV-2. The first developed from a Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) found in chimpanzees, whereas the second came from an SIV in a type of monkey called the sooty mangabey. HIV-1, which is responsible for the majority of AIDS cases worldwide, is divided into three groups—the main group M, the much rarer gro... ...M), predominantly black men, are most seriously affected by HIV. 1,144,500 people over the age of 13 are living with HIV, including 15.8 percent who are unaware. Over the past decade, the number of HIV has risen, while the annual rate of new infections has remained consistent (â€Å"AIDS.gov,† 2012). HIV disease prevails as a serious health issue for parts of the world. Worldwide, there were about 2.5 million new cases of HIV in 2011. Around 34.2 million people are living with HIV around the world. In 2010, there were about 1.8 million deaths in people with AIDS. Nearly 30 million people with AIDS have died worldwide since the epidemic began. Although Sub-Saharan Africa bears the biggest burden of HIV/AIDS, countries such as South and Southeast Asia, Eastern Europe and Central Asia, and parts of Latin America are significantly affected by HIV and AIDS (â€Å"CDC.gov,† 2013).

Jane Goodall :: essays papers

Jane Goodall Jane Goodall is one of the world’s most admired women, acclaimed scientist, and conservationist (www.nationalgeographic.com). The work that she does is called ethology, which is the study of animal behavior. Such a successful woman has numerous admirable qualities. She has contributed greatly to society as well as to the animal kingdom. Her research paved the way for countless primate studies, and has changed the way many people view chimpanzees. Trying to narrow down only three admirable qualities about her is difficult, since she has so many. To me, her most admirable qualities are her patience and persistence to understand animals, her research involving chimpanzees, and her contributions she has made to the world by establishing various institutions. Studying chimpanzees is not an easy task. Subsequently, Jane Goodall made it look as simple as doing everyday activities. When she started the research, the chimpanzees fled from her in fear. It took many months for her to get close to them. With patience and persistence, she searched the forest everyday, deliberately trying not to get too close to them. Everyday she did this for many months. On some days Jane would observe the chimpanzees through binoculars from a peak overlooking the forest, just so she wouldn’t disturb their natural behavior. Gradually over a long period of time the chimpanzees became accustomed to her. At this time, she would be able to move up to them and just sit there and study them. She believed that this was her breakthrough in her research. Jane tells us â€Å"I must find a way to watch free, wild animals living their own, undisturbed lives. I wanted to learn things that no one else knew, uncover secrets through patient observation. I wanted to co me as close to talking to animals as I could (www.nationalgeographic.com).† To be able to have such patience and persistence is remarkable. Jane’s scientific discoveries have laid the foundation for all future primate studies. Her interest was studying the chimpanzees to gain insight into humans’ evolutionary past. Her observations have changed the way researchers and everyday individuals view chimpanzees. Jane had observed chimpanzees making and using tools for different reasons, such as using straws for extracting termites from nests. Her studies have showed many similarities between humans and chimpanzees, this discovery had amazed the world. The longer her research continued, the more it became obvious how like people chimpanzees really are. Some people believed that her research would last only a few months, however it has become the longest field study on any animal species in their natural surroundings (www.

The Evolution of Film Essay -- History, Trick Film

In the early times of narrative cinema there was litter pressure on the filmmakers for the evolution of film forms before nickelodeons (Salt, 31) as cinema had not become a mass cultural product and film was still just a novelty expected to die out like rock n roll. And so the demand was low and so the supply could remain unoriginal. Mary Jane's Mishap was made in 1903 when ‘multi-scene films were becoming popular’ (Salt, 32). Mary Jane's Mishap is notable for its use of experimental and inventive shot transitions. It used a vertical wipe to instead of ‘separate successive scenes’ (Salt, 32) (as it cuts to a shot width a wider frame of the same locale) but to change the zoom level. This frame is essentially an insert and borderline emblematic shot. It doubles as an intertitle at the same time as to avoid ‘systematically anticipating the narrative content of the following shot and thus eliminating any possible suspense, were to constitute a major obsta cle to the linearization of narrative for the next ten years at least.’ (Burch, 221) it which explains to the viewer clearly that it is Mary Jane’s grave as on which is important as it is a ‘self sufficient narrative’ (Burch, 221) as cinema had run out of stories that were familiar to audiences and the primitive viewer was not well versed in film (quote this). This is at a time when fades and overlaps were more popular. In the development of the narrative close ups are used. Mary Jane's Mishap uses both types of these close shots that Salt defines (Salt, 38). Firstly the insert which only show the face but closer it furthers the narrative by highlighting the comedy and humour in the moustache she has given herself with shoe polish. Secondly, the ‘true close-up’ such as in this shot... ...shot of Mary Jane in the first scene to join the shots and de-emphasize discontinuity as well as trying to match the character movement to bridge the cuts. (Gunning, 90) ‘The key articulation in the scene would be the cut-in (or the cut out) in which successive shots overlap spatially. This would find its beginnings in the cut-ins to medium shots in such films as Mary Jane's Mishap but becomes dominant practice around 1912.’ (Gunning, 93) According to this view, ‘the single-shot functions as a theatrical proscenium (long shot framing) and the theatrical scene’ (the lengthy uninterrupted shot)’ (Gunning, 97). Though Mary Jane's Mishap evolves from this by using these cut-ins though these are still only cut-ins filmed from the same perspective/position of the original shots/ where a audience member of a theatre show would stay. Understanding of it being primitive.

Business Math

Chapter 5 Interest Rates 5-1. Your bank is offering you an account that will pay 20% interest in total for a two-year deposit. Determine the equivalent discount rate for a period length of a. Six months. b. One year. c. One month. a. Since 6 months is [pic] of 2 years, using our rule [pic] So the equivalent 6 month rate is 4. 66%. b. Since one year is half of 2 years [pic] So the equivalent 1 year rate is 9. 54%. c. Since one month is [pic] of 2 years, using our rule [pic] So the equivalent 1 month rate is 0. 63%. 5-2. Which do you prefer: a bank account that pays 5% per year (EAR) for three years or a. An account that pays 2[pic] every six months for three years? b. An account that pays 7[pic] every 18 months for three years? c. An account that pays [pic] per month for three years? If you deposit $1 into a bank account that pays 5% per year for 3 years you will have [pic] after 3 years. a. If the account pays [pic] per 6 months then you will have [pic] after 3 years, so you prefer [ pic] every 6 months. b.If the account pays [pic] per 18 months then you will have [pic] after 3 years, so you prefer 5% per year. c. If the account pays [pic] per month then you will have [pic] after 3 years, so you prefer [pic] every month. 5-3. Many academic institutions offer a sabbatical policy. Every seven years a professor is given a year free of teaching and other administrative responsibilities at full pay. For a professor earning $70,000 per year who works for a total of 42 years, what is the present value of the amount she will earn while on sabbatical if the interest rate is 6% (EAR)? Timeline: 0 |7 |14 | | | |42 | | | | | | | | | |0 |1 |2 | | | |8 | | | | | | | | | |0 |1 |2 | | | |304 | | | | | | | |48 |0. 75 % |20,092. 9 |–500 |0 | Thus, your remaining balance is $20,092. 39. If you prepay an extra $100 today, your will lower your remaining balance to $20,092. 39 – 100 = $19,992. 39. Though your balance is reduced, your required monthly payment does not ch ange. Instead, you will pay off the loan faster; that is, it will reduce the payments you need to make at the very end of the loan. How much smaller will the final payment be? With the extra payment, the timeline changes: That is, we will pay off by paying $500 per month for 47 months, and some smaller amount, $500 – X, in the last month.To solve for X, recall that the PV of the remaining cash flows equals the outstanding balance when the loan interest rate is used as the discount rate: [pic] Solving for X gives [pic] So the final payment will be lower by $143. 14. You can also use the annuity spreadsheet to determine this solution. If you prepay $100 today, and make payments of $500 for 48 months, then your final balance at the end will be a credit of $143. 14: |N |I |PV |PMT |FV | |48 |0. 75 % |19,992. 9 |-500 |143. 14 | (2) The extra payment effectively lets us exchange $100 today for $143. 14 in four years. We claimed that the return on this investment should be the loan interest rate. Let’s see if this is the case: [pic], so it is. Thus, you earn a 9% APR (the rate on the loan). 5-19. Consider again the setting of Problem 18. Now that you realize your best investment is to prepay your student loan, you decide to prepay as much as you can each month. Looking at your budget, you can afford to pay an extra $250 per month in addition to your required monthly payments of $500, r $750 in total each month. How long will it take you to pay off the loan? The timeline in this case is: and we want to determine the number of monthly payments N that we will need to make. That is, we need to determine what length annuity with a monthly payment of $750 has the same present value as the loan balance, using the loan interest rate as the discount rate. As we did in Chapter 4, we set the outstanding balance equal to the present value of the loan payments and solve for N. [pic] We can also use the annuity spreadsheet to solve for N. N |I |PV |PMT |FV | |30. 02 |0. 75 % |20,092. 39 |–750 |0 | So, by prepaying the loan, we will pay off the loan in about 30 months or 2 ? years, rather than the four years originally scheduled. Because N of 30. 02 is larger than 30, we could either increase the 30th payment by a small amount or make a very small 31st payment. We can use the annuity spreadsheet to determine the remaining balance after 30 payments. N |I |PV |PMT |FV | |30 |0. 75 % |20,092. 39 |–750 |–13. 86 | If we make a final payment of $750. 00 + $13. 86 = $763. 86, the loan will be paid off in 30 months. 5-20. Oppenheimer Bank is offering a 30-year mortgage with an APR of 5. 25%. With this mortgage your monthly payments would be $2000 per month. In addition, Oppenheimer Bank offers you the following deal: Instead of making he monthly payment of $2000 every month, you can make half the payment every two weeks (so that you will make 52 ? 2 = 26 payments per year). With this plan, how long will it take to pay off the mortga ge of $150,000 if the EAR of the loan is unchanged? If we make [pic] every 2 weeks the timeline is as follows. Timeline: |0 |1 |2 |3 | | | | | | | | | | | | Using the formula for the loan payment, [pic] Next we write out the cash flows with the extra payment. Timeline #2: 0 |1 | |6|7| |18 | | | | | | | | | To determine the outstanding balance we discount at the original rate, i. e. , [pic] [pic] Next we calculate the loan payment on the new mortgage. Timeline #2: |0 |1 |2 | | | |360 | | | | | | | | | The discount rate on the new loan is the new loan rate: [pic] Using the formula for the loan payment: [pic] b. pic] c. [pic] (You can use trial and error or the annuity calculator to solve for N. ) d. [pic] (Note: results may differ slightly due to rounding. ) 5-24. You have credit card debt of $25,000 that has an APR (monthly compounding) of 15%. Each month you pay the minimum monthly payment only. You are required to pay only the outstanding interest. You have received an offer in the mail for an otherwise identical credit card with an APR of 12%. After considering all your alternatives, you decide to switch cards, roll over the outstanding balance on the old card into the new card, and borrow additional money as well.How much can you borrow today on the new card without changing the minimum monthly payment you will be required to pay? The discount rate on the original card is: [pic] Assuming that your current monthly payment is the interest that accrues, it equals: [pic] Timeline: |0 |1 |2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |312. 50 |312. 50 | |This is a perpetuity. So the amount you can borrow at the new interest rate is this cash flow discounted at the new discount rate. The new discount rate is [pic] So,[pic] So by switching credit cards you are able to spend an extra [pic] You do not have to pay taxes on this amount of new borrowing, so this is your after-tax benefit of switching cards. 5-25. In 1975, interest rates were 7. 85% and the rate of inflation was 12. 3% in the United States. What was the real interest rate in 1975? How would the purchasing power of your savings have changed over the year? pic] The purchasing power of your savings declined by 3. 96% over the year. 5-26. If the rate of inflation is 5%, what nominal interest rate is necessary for you to earn a 3% real interest rate on your investment? [pic] implies [pic]. Therefore, a nominal rate of 8. 15% is required. 5-27. Can the nominal interest rate available to an investor be significantly negative? (Hint: Consider the interest rate earned from saving cash â€Å"under the mattress. †) Can the real interest rate be negative? Explain. By holding cash, an investor earns a nominal interest rate of 0%.Since an investor can always earn at least 0%, the nominal interest rate cannot be negative. The real interest rate can be negative, however. It is negative whenever the rate of inflation exceeds the nominal interest rate. 5-28. Consider a project that requires an ini tial investment of $100,000 and will produce a single cash flow of $150,000 in five years. a. What is the NPV of this project if the five-year interest rate is 5% (EAR)? b. What is the NPV of this project if the five-year interest rate is 10% (EAR)? c. What is the highest five-year interest rate such that this project is still profitable? . NPV = –100,000 + 150,000 / 1. 055 = $17,529. b. NPV = –100,000 + 150,000 / 1. 105 = –$6862. c. The answer is the IRR of the investment: IRR = (150,000 / 100,000)1/5 – 1 = 8. 45%. 5-29. Suppose the term structure of risk-free interest rates is as shown below: [pic] a. Calculate the present value of an investment that pays $1000 in two years and $2000 in five years for certain. b. Calculate the present value of receiving $500 per year, with certainty, at the end of the next five years. To find the rates for the missing years in the table, linearly interpolate between the years for which ou do know the rates. (For example , the rate in year 4 would be the average of the rate in year 3 and year 5. ) c. Calculate the present value of receiving $2300 per year, with certainty, for the next 20 years. Infer rates for the missing years using linear interpolation. (Hint : Use a spreadsheet. ) a. Timeline: |0 |1 |2 |3 |4 |5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Since the opportunity cost of capital is different for investments of different maturities, we must use the cost of capital associated with each cash flow as the discount rate for that cash flow. Unfortunately, we do not have a rate for a 4-year cash flow, so we linearly interpolate. [pic] [pic] c. Timeline: 0 |1 |2 |3 | | | |20 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |2,300 |2,300 |2,300 | | | |2,300 | |Since the opportunity cot of capital is different for investments of different maturities, we must use the cost of capital associated with each cash flow as the discount rate for that cash flow.Unfortunately, we do not have a rate for a nu mber of years, so we linearly interpolate. [pic] [pic] [pic] [pic] 5-30. Using the term structure in Problem 29, what is the present value of an investment that pays $100 at the end of each of years 1, 2, and 3? If you wanted to value this investment correctly using the annuity formula, which discount rate should you use? PV = 100 / 1. 0199 + 100 / 1. 02412 + 100 / 1. 02743 =$285. 61. To determine the single discount rate that would compute the value correctly, we solve the following for r: PV = 285. 1 = 100/(1 + r) + 100 / (1 + r)2 + 100/(1 + r)3 = $285. 61. This is just an IRR calculation. Using trial and error or the annuity calculator, r = 2. 50%. Note that this rate is between the 1, 2, and 3-yr rates given. 5-31. What is the shape of the yield curve given the term structure in Problem 29? What expectations are investors likely to have about future interest rates? The yield curve is increasing. This is often a sign that investors expect interest rates to rise in the future. 5-3 2. Suppose the current one-year interest rate is 6%.One year from now, you believe the economy will start to slow and the one-year interest rate will fall to 5%. In two years, you expect the economy to be in the midst of a recession, causing the Federal Reserve to cut interest rates drastically and the one-year interest rate to fall to 2%. The one-year interest rate will then rise to 3% the following year, and continue to rise by 1% per year until it returns to 6%, where it will remain from then on. a. If you were certain regarding these future interest rate changes, what two-year interest rate would be consistent with these expectations? . What current term structure of interest rates, for terms of 1 to 10 years, would be consistent with these expectations? c. Plot the yield curve in this case. How does the one-year interest rate compare to the 10-year interest rate? a. The one-year interest rate is 6%. If rates fall next year to 5%, then if you reinvest at this rate over two years you would earn (1. 06)(1. 05) = 1. 113 per dollar invested. This amount corresponds to an EAR of (1. 113)1/2 – 1 = 5. 50% per year for two years. Thus, the two-year rate that is consistent with these expectations is 5. 0%. b. We can apply the same logic for future years: c. We can plot the yield curve using the EARs in (b); note that the 10-year rate is below the 1-year rate (yield curve is inverted). 5-33. Figure 5. 4 shows that Wal-Mart’s five-year borrowing rate is 3. 1% and GE Capital’s is 10%. Which would you prefer? $500 from Wal-Mart paid today or a promise that the firm will pay you $700 in five years? Which would you choose if GE Capital offered you the same alternatives? We can use the interest rates each company must pay on a 5-year loan as the discount rate.PV for GE Capital = 700 / 1. 105 = $434. 64 < $500 today, so take the money now. PV for Wal-Mart = 700 / 1. 0315 = $600. 90 > $500 today, so take the promise. 5-34. Your best taxable investment o pportunity has an EAR of 4%. You best tax-free investment opportunity has an EAR of 3%. If your tax rate is 30%, which opportunity provides the higher after-tax interest rate? After-tax rate = 4%(1 – . 30) = 2. 8%, which is less than your tax-free investment with pays 3%. 5-35. Your uncle Fred just purchased a new boat.He brags to you about the low 7% interest rate (APR, monthly compounding) he obtained from the dealer. The rate is even lower than the rate he could have obtained on his home equity loan (8% APR, monthly compounding). If his tax rate is 25% and the interest on the home equity loan is tax deductible, which loan is truly cheaper? After-tax cost of home equity loan is 8%(1 – . 25) = 6%, which is cheaper than the dealer’s loan (for which interest is not tax-deductible). Thus, the home equity loan is cheaper. (Note that this could also be done in terms of EARs. ) 5-36.You are enrolling in an MBA program. To pay your tuition, you can either take out a s tandard student loan (so the interest payments are not tax deductible) with an EAR of 5[pic] or you can use a tax-deductible home equity loan with an APR (monthly) of 6%. You anticipate being in a very low tax bracket, so your tax rate will be only 15%. Which loan should you use? Using the formula to convert an APR to an EAR: [pic] So the home equity loan has an EAR of 6. 168%. Now since the rate on a tax deductible loan is a before-tax rate, we must convert this to an after-tax rate to compare it. [pic]Since the student loan has a larger after tax rate, you are better off using the home equity loan. 5-37. Your best friend consults you for investment advice. You learn that his tax rate is 35%, and he has the following current investments and debts:  ¦ A car loan with an outstanding balance of $5000 and a 4. 8% APR (monthly compounding)  ¦ Credit cards with an outstanding balance of $10,000 and a 14. 9% APR (monthly compounding)  ¦ A regular savings account with a $30,000 balan ce, paying a 5. 50% EAR  ¦ A money market savings account with a $100,000 balance, paying a 5. 25% APR (daily compounding) A tax-deductible home equity loan with an outstanding balance of $25,000 and a 5. 0% APR (monthly compounding) a. Which savings account pays a higher after-tax interest rate? b. Should your friend use his savings to pay off any of his outstanding debts? Explain. a. The regular savings account pays 5. 5% EAR, or 5. 5%(1 – . 35) = 3. 575% after tax. The money-market account pays (1 + 5. 25%/365)365 – 1 = 5. 39% or 5. 39%(1 – . 35) = 3. 50% after tax. Therefore, the regular savings account pays a higher rate. b. Your friend should pay off the credit card loans and the car loan, since they have after-tax costs of 14. % APR and 4. 8% APR respectively, which exceed the rate earned on savings. The home equity loan should not be repaid, as its EAR = (1 + 5%/12)12 – 1 = 5. 12%, for an after-tax rate of only 5. 125(1 – . 35) = 3. 33%, which is below the rate earned on savings. 5-38. Suppose you have outstanding debt with an 8% interest rate that can be repaid anytime, and the interest rate on U. S. Treasuries is only 5%. You plan to repay your debt using any cash that you don’t invest elsewhere. Until your debt is repaid, what cost of capital should you use when evaluating a new risk-free investment opportunity? Why?The appropriate cost of capital for a new risk-free investment is 8%, since you could earn 8% without risk by paying off your existing loan and avoiding interest charges. 5-39. In the summer of 2008, at Heathrow Airport in London, Bestofthebest (BB), a private company, offered a lottery to win a Ferrari or 90,000 British pounds, equivalent at the time to about $180,000. Both the Ferrari and the money, in 100 pound notes, were on display. If the U. K. interest rate was 5% per year, and the dollar interest rate was 2% per year (EARs), how much did it cost the company in dollars each month to keep the cash on display?That is, what was the opportunity cost of keeping it on display rather than in a bank account? (Ignore taxes. ) Because the prize is in pounds, we should use the pound interest rate (comparable risk). (1. 05)(1/12) – 1 = . 4074%. 0. 4074% x 90k = 366. 7 pounds per month, or $733 per month at the current exchange rate. 5-40. You firm is considering the purchase of a new office phone system. You can either pay $32,000 now, or $1000 per month for 36 months. a. Suppose your firm currently borrows at a rate of 6% per year (APR with monthly compounding).Which payment plan is more attractive? b. Suppose your firm currently borrows at a rate of 18% per year (APR with monthly compounding). Which payment plan would be more attractive in this case? a. The payments are as risky as the firm’s other debt. So opportunity cost = debt rate. PV(36 month annuity of 1000 at 6%/12 per month) = $32,871. So pay cash. b. PV(annuity at 18%/12 per mo) = $27,661. So pay over time. ———————– 47 –500 0 2 –500 1 –500 48 –500 47 –500 0 19,992. 39 2 –500 1 –500 48 –(500 – X) N -750 0 20,092. 39 2 -750 1 -750 [pic]

Physical Features and Climate of Russia

Most of the population can be found in the north-west part where the biggest cities are – Moscow and SST. Petersburg. Other parts of Russia are less developed with high unemployment rates and poverty. Because of its location Russian culture is influenced by Europe from one side and Asia from another and it creates a sort of misunderstanding between people who live In different regions. Russia Is rich with natural resources especially gas and Is able to play almost a monopolistic role exporting these resources.However whenever I travel around Russia I see that many wings are not brought for tourists consumption and many areas require improvement. Let's take Aural Mountains for example – a massive area with beautiful mountains that could be perfect for winter sports. But it is embarrassing to bring foreign tourists there because the quality of service leaves much to be desired. The main money capital is centered in Moscow and SST. Petersburg so the other parts of Russia h ave to suffer. 2. How did climate and physical geographic features spur Russian's imperial expansion? To start with, Russia had a huge territory from the 10th century.Century wrought century It was expanding its territory In order to get the access to waters, warmer climate lands and gain more natural resources. As the climate was quite harsh, people were conquering and gaining lands with better climate. Secondly, the surrounding countries and lands felt dependent on Russian resources and some of them preferred to unite their lands with Russia. Therefore the population was growing rapidly. 3. Why is fur far more than an indulgence in Russia? What role did the fur trade play in the expansion of Russia? Nowadays, Russian fur market is one of the largest in the world.From the past times hunting animals for food and fur has been a great contribution to Russian's economy that helped in development and country expansion. Many types of animals which fur Is valued live In the Russian forest s and their number Is quite large, that allows hunting them without major disturbances of nature. Fur trade was one of the popular activities In Russia now and then. 4. How did the establishment of the Soviet bloc lad development of the Soviet union following World War II? Discuss with regard to technical optimization, had a land border with Afghanistan, Hungary, Iran, China, DEEP, Mongolia, Norway,Poland, Romania, Turkey, Finland, Czechoslovakia and the only sea border with the U. S. A. , Sweden and Japan. The Soviet Union, along with the United States was a strong empire. The Soviet Union dominated the world system of socialism, as well as was a permanent member of UN Security Council. After the victory in the war was carried out denationalization of the Soviet economy and its recovery in areas affected by the occupation. By 1950 industrial production increased by 73% compared to the pre-war period. Agriculture recovered more slowly, with great difficulties, mistakes and miscalcul ations.However in 1947 the food situation has stabilized, were canceled cards for food and industrial goods, a monetary reform helped to stabilize the financial situation. 5. What factors led to the breakup of the Soviet empire? The following factors played the key role for the breakup of Soviet Union: International arguments between countries about the different cultures that are under intro of Soviet Union; Restrictions introduced by the government for mass media and West influence; Being behind the west empires in development – the level of life was very low, deficit of everything; Economic reform failure;Oil prices decrease; All the decisions were taken in Moscow only – other parts were not satisfied with that; Wars like Afghanistan and Cold war were destroying economy; Was hard to lead such a big in territory country; â€Å"Perestroika† program of Geographer; Boris Elgin brought democracy program and it became popular within a short period of time. 6. In 19 86, what happened at Coherency? Today, what policy does the Russian Federation have regarding the storage of nuclear waste? On April 26, 1986 the destruction happened of the Fourth energy unit of Coherency nuclear power plant, hat located on the territory of the Ukrainian USSR (now – Ukraine).It includes the classification system of nuclear materials and the distribution of duties – who from the government is in charge of what. As any law it includes the punishments and penalties system for breaking any of the published rules. 7. Discuss the environmental degradation of Lake Basal and the Oral Sea. Lake Basal in Russia and Oral Sea in Astrakhan were once the cleanliest water objects in are aware of the environmental crisis, claim that nowadays these two objects are totally different as they were in the past times.Let's start with Basal – the problem as that many programs established by government in order to preserve its cleanliness were not brought into life. T herefore the problem of Basil's pollution was not resolved and the level of cleanliness was rapidly dropping. Oral Sea had a sadder fate. The level of its water dropped due to the pollution and the sea separated into two isolated reservoirs of water – North and South. Both countries were unable to take care of these natural resources which lead to degradation of environment in the mentioned areas. 8. During the Soviet era, the human population of Siberian tundra and taiga rose hardly.Currently people are leaving the area. Discuss migration in and out of Siberia with regard to natural resource development, industrialization, forced labor, military strategy, and free market forces In Russia there is a strong tendency of people to migrate from east to west or south, because the level of life is higher in those regions. People are setting up near the big megalopolises. It is because they are searching for better Jobs, for education, for recognition and self-development. Therefore the areas they leave become less populated and less developed.It influences the agriculture and production of goods of Russia, as many territories are left unused and the economy bases on different sources of income. The trade is on high level – migrants try to take as many belongings as they can so they trade the goods they collected through a long period of time, animals are traded as well for food and fur. 9. Ethnic diversity in Central Asia contributed to the breakup of the Soviet Union. How have national identities been asserted in the decade since the Central Asian Republics became independent countries? What cultural factors serve to unify or separate the states in this region?After the breakup of Soviet Union in 1991 many countries of Central Asia that separated have been placed in hard times of crisis and political and economic instabilities. As well as Russia, they were developing with the use of their own resources and skills. Some of them were influenced by the U SA in order to get some material help. The cultural factors that served to unify or separate the states are based on cultural differences, disagreement in accepting other cultural traditions and religions. Some regions were not satisfied with the government and were trying to separate and establish their own ones.

Edwards’ Sermon “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” Essay

When first reading Jonathan Edwards’ sermon, â€Å"Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,† shocked readers how it started right in about the wrath of God and Hell. His diction and images create a tone of alarming immediacy – act now for your own good. â€Å"The bow of God’s wrath is bent†, the arrow ready to pierce the heart of a sinner. Edwards uses this frightening image to compare the power of God to the people. His point is that he wants to persuade sinners to repent. Edwards seems to feel a harsh tone is needed in this to get the point across that they need God to lead them out of the dreadful pit. Edwards’ word choices present a contradiction, saying that people who have a relationship with God can still go to Hell because there is only God’s hand holding us up from Hell. The word â€Å"obligation† implies that the arrow could pierce a sinner’s heart right now, during his sermon. Also, â€Å"everlasting destructionà ¢â‚¬  has a big impact, telling people that they can have life if they follow God, or be swallowed up by Hell. Edwards is didactic and harsh with the information he tries to convey to the congregation, scaring them he hopes, into salvation. He uses these tools to help the tone on the importance of knowing God and how people’s lives can be changed. He does this out of love, trying to tell them how it really is and wanting them to choose the right way. This frightening, bullying tone is a far cry from the 21st century sermons which emphasize God’s love for mankind as in the well known verse John 3:16.

Land Acquisition in Zambia

Due to the effects of food price crisis of 2007-2008, there was growing concern among the nations about the food security. There was surge in demand for food products by the food importing countries and subsequently food-producing countries imposed some restrictions on the food exports of food grains. In order to meet the growing demand of food and face increasing pressures on natural resources and water scarcity, the countries with land and water constraints needed an alternative means of producing food. Acquisition of farmland in the developing countries by these countries seeks to ensure food security. More on the land acquisition drive) These investments are not driven by the notion of comparative advantage in the large-scale production of indigenous crop (Mann and Smaller; 1; January 2010). The higher oil prices in 2007-2008 were another driver, which triggered interest of developed countries to acquire land for energy crops. Global financial crisis also encouraged investors to invest in foreign lands. The value of both food and fertile land was set to increase, making them an attractive new investment. Budgetary resources in developing countries may not be enough to meet infrastructural investment required to use the land to its potential. Some developing countries are seeking foreign investment to exploit their surplus land which is currently unused or under-utilized. This may lead to creation of jobs in rural areas and there may also be investment in health and education sector. Technology transfer by the investor countries may lead to increase in farm productivity. However these investments are not without trade offs. There are concerns about the impact on local poor people, who lack access to and control over land on which they depend. There can be local unemployment because of projects with imported workforce and high degree of mechanization. It will also lead to increase in regional land prices through soaring competition with regard to acreage and resources, and thus less access of land to poor people. Foreign investors can also emerge as strong competitors to local producers, especially small households. There is also risk of land conflicts in territories without well defined land titles (Bicker and Breuer; 37; April 2009). In some cases, the land leases are justified on the basis that the land being acquired by the foreign investor is â€Å"unproductive† or â€Å"underutilized. † However, there may be that the land is being used by poor for purposes such as grazing animals and gathering fuel wood or medicinal plants. These uses tend to be undervalued in official assessments because they are not marketed, but they can provide valuable livelihood sources to the poor. †(Von Braun and Meinzen-Dick; 2; April 2009) Large-scale land acquisitions may further jeopardize the welfare of the poor by depriving them of the safety-net function of this type. There can be misappropriation of arable land, displacement of indigenous people without compensation and migration to cities. So it is crucial to ensure that these land deals, and the environment within which they take place, are designed in a ways that will reduce the threats and facilitate the â€Å"win-win† situation for all the parties involved. According to Sustainable development innovation briefs (January 2010), â€Å"There are three sources of law governing foreign investment in agricultural land. 1) Domestic law 2) International investment contract 3) International investment agreements (IIAs) According to Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives of Republic of Zambia, Zambia has the best surface and underground water resources in Africa, with many rivers, lakes and dams. Sharing borders with eight countries, Zambia is centrally situated as a gateway to both southern and central Africa. This location is strategically advantageous by placing Zambia in a position to exploit the growing regional markets of SADC and COMESA, and be an active participant in regional and international agriculture trade initiatives (Source: The best of Zambia). Even with resource endowment for development of a wide range crops, livestock, and fish given the diversity of its agro-ecological zones, there was lack of cultivation because initially labour was forced toward mining sector. Urbanization kept the people to cities only. There was lack of infrastructure and utilities in rural areas which imposes a higher social cost in moving towards agriculture sector. The policies which took place were directed towards the development of mining sector, neglecting agriculture. It is generally seen that the developed countries are mainly with expanding industrial sector. These developed countries have initially accumulated the surplus in agriculture sector and then invested that surplus for expansion of industrial sector. So there is need to develop agriculture initially. Zambia is rich in mineral resources. To explore the potential there is need to develop agriculture sector. In Zambia, most farmers are insecure in the ownership of the land they work in. Less than 5% of them have leasehold title for their land. Most farmers pay rent to titleholders or have some kind of sharecropping arrangement with the title owners. Others depend on land owned either by the government or private owners, or on council or forestry land for their living. Those living in areas of customary land use do not need to be consulted before mining operations are allowed, and are usually not even aware of the possibility of placing land disputes before the Lands Tribunal (MacCuish and Frankel on behalf of Halifax Initiative Coalition). The efforts of the Agriculture Department to mark off ownership and use of agricultural areas were hindered by the lack of information about who owned the land. According to report of Global Times ( 9 September 2009), The Zambian government is to devise measures that would smoothen and quicken the acquisition of title deeds by prospective land owners, this was done in a bid to empower the less privileged people to own land in the country. The poor people can use land as collateral for them to access loans for land development. According to Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives of Zambia (26 January 2010), â€Å"Out of 75 million hectares land of Zambia, 43 million hectares (53%) is classified as medium to high potential for agriculture production. So far only 6. 02 (14%) of agricultural land is currently utilized. Irrigation total potential is 2. 7 million hectares out of which about 156000 hectares is under irrigation†. Framers are given a good price for grain but due to lack of market access the move is outweighed by poor infrastructure. Zambia endowed with rich natural resources needs investment by foreign investors to strengthen Zambia’s economic muscle (Zambia Mail dated May 11, 2010) Acquisition of land by the foreign investors is controversial and carriers many risks. Foreign investment can also be made through contract farming and out-growers scheme or joint venture or provision of infrastructure by the investor country. (David Hallam; 6; December, 2009) According to FAO (2001), â€Å"Contract farming can be defined as an agreement between farmers and processing/marketing firms for the production and supply of agriculture products under forward agreement, frequently at predetermined prices. The arrangements also invariably involve the purchaser in providing a degree of production support through, for example, the supply of inputs and provision of technical advice. The basis of such arrangements is a commitment on the part of the farmer to provide a specific commodity in quantities and at quality standards determined by the purchaser and a commitment on the part of the company to support the farmer’s production and to purchase the commodity†. In contract farming, farmers have to loose some freedom over the choice of crops they want to grow. The main commodities produced by small-scale farmers in Zambia under contract farming arrangements are cotton, tobacco, coffee, sugar, paprika and fresh vegetables. Of late honey, livestock (pigs and dairy cattle) and organic products are also coming up. Likilunga; 3; December 2005) Nevertheless, joint ventures between foreign investors and local producers or their associations as partners might offer more spillover benefits for the host country. Mixed models are also possible with investments in a large-scale core enterprise at the centre but also involving outgrowers under contracts to supplement core production. Some governments have been active in encouraging foreign involvement in such enterprises, as in the Tanzanian sugar sector or the so-called â€Å"Farm Blocks† in Zambia (David Hallam; 6; December, 2009). Zambian government has embarked on a programme to open up viable farm blocks in various parts of country to be involved in primary production and value addition. In Farm Block Development, Government has to provide basic infrastructure such as road, bridges and electrification. The design of Farm block is as follow. There is one core venture of 10,000 Hectares with commercial farms of 1000-5000 Hectares and small holdings of 30-300 Hectares. (Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives of Zambia; 26 January 2010). The type of business model to be adopted depends on certain characteristics of the economy i. e. olitical and social conditions, specific circumstances, the commodity concerned etc. Land acquisition and commercialization of agriculture is favorable, when economies of scale are important or there is need for investment in infrastructure. Contract farming or outgrower scheme is desirable when there in need to involve small landholders, but in contract farming care should be taken that contracts are properly implemented and there is no exploitation of smallholders by the big firms. The litigation process in Zambia takes too long and therefore enforceability through litigation process is costly and therefore not resorted to. There is weakness of enforceability when contract is breached. Donor funding forms a big part of Zambia’s spending plan (The Africa report; October 2009). China, India, South-Korea and oil-rich gulf countries with land and water constraints are turning to Africa as food security blanket. Saudi Arabia is interested in area of agriculture in Zambia. China is proposing to acquire 5 million acres of land to grow jatropha. Jatropha is a perennial plant, which can be used as biofuel. Plantation have yield after 2-3 years. In the short run there will be loss but in long run there will be gains. Income generated from plantation will vary from year to year. Growing Jatropha needs long term investment, which is vulnerable to risk due to uncertainty in price, yield, labour cost and rate of interest. Biofuel can provide hedge against climate change. Jatropha can also be used as a substitute for expensive kerosene, fertilizer and diesel. It needs less water so there is no need of major irrigation facilities. Jatropha can be planted during spare time in idle or fallow land, for which lot of officially unused land and degraded bush land seems available. Cultivation of Jatropha on abandoned agricultural, deforested or degraded land has the potential to improve the nutrient content of the soil and reduce erosion. Thus, this may improve the value of the land. However, the expanding use of land for the Jatropha production, even though it is marginal land, could mean that people living in the area would have to find other places for collecting firewood, herbs and fields for pasture land etc. So the selection of land for production should be done very carefully. Land grab in Africa mainly for biofuels has serious implications for food security. This however but it depend on the ownership of the land and how much space the production of Jatropha takes up. Biodiesel is mainly used by developed countries. If the price of food grains increases, then the people in developing country will suffer. Food security could even decrease where land and water resources are commandeered by the international investment project at the expense of domestic smallholders or where foreign investments push up land values. There can also be worst case scenario that there is production of 100 unit’s energy biodiesel from the inputs of 127 unit’s energy. The advertising that agro-fuels will assist farmers is based on the notion that the decisions about the use of the land remain decentralized within the country. Farmers should be given free will to decide how to plant Jatropha to produce oil for lamps or sop or bio-diesel for their vehicles. But the scenario set up by the large corporations is not what is desirable. There is usurpation of huge tracts of African land for overseas consumption and if they ruin the ecosystem, they conveniently make a move to other areas (MS Zambia Newsletter August 2009). Production of Jatropha is mainly done by the Out grower schemes. It is found that mostly there were no formal contracts for production. Even if contracts exist, there was no enforcement. Even farmers are not satisfied with Outgrowing system. Firms promise to endow the farmers with technology but fail to turn up again to provide information on technical issues. Production is targeted toward export and fails to benefit Zambian people. This can be confirmed by the fact that there exist no refineries in Zambia. There is need to set up a monitoring committee which can observe that all the contracts taking place are implemented. Strict actions should be taken if contracts are not enforced. The land grabbing has become very sophisticated and the poor are bound to suffer. There is need to lobby government for some policy changes. Civil societies should come up for the benefit of small holders and there is need to sensitize and assist the poor access and legally own land. Building the capacity of small scale farmers and their organizations to be part of the new agribusiness dispensation through direct investments as well as in partnership with foreign investors is desirable. There is need to empower the rural communities’ access and communally own land through ‘Community land titles’ to protect them in the future land concessions. (MS Zambia Newsletter August 2009). There is need by government to put more conducive environment by setting up â€Å"small claims courts’. There is need for further training of small-scale farmers so that they can develop skills in negotiating for good prices for their commodities. (Likilunga; 12; December 2005) â€Å"Extensive control of land by other countries can also raise questions of political interference and influence. (David Hallam; December 2009). Government maintains secrecy in the deals involving foreign investors. This lack in transparency undermines government accountability and gives an opportunity for corruption. Some recently reported land deals were associated with allegations that investors had paid cash or in-kind contributions to business or other activities run by high government officials or even the president in a personal capacity (e. g. Hervieu, 2009), even where private ownership is formally recognized most of the land is controlled by state (Cotula, Vermulen, Leonard and Keeley; 69; 2009). It has been seen that incomes are very unevenly distributed in Zambia. â€Å"Bottom 80% of populations in terms of earning are reported to have acquired only 31. 3% of total income, while the top 20% of population claimed 68. 87% of total income†. (Zambian Economist, 31 May, 2008). Non availability of written agreement on land acquisition has created disputes in some settlement area. A vigorous consultative process on land acquisition has to be adopted o minimize these land disputes. It is required to have all the deals in the written form. Appropriate Resettlement policy should be in place and adequate compensation should be give to the displaced farmers. Farmers generally practice subsistence farming and the land of cultivation is scattered. Most of the rural population keeps on migrating within the country. The liberalization of the agriculture sector and other reforms in Zambia, were accompanied by the decline in cultivated land and maize production. The proportion of households selling to the market and concentration of serves in central areas was also reduced. (Sangrario Floro and Schaefer: 84; fall 1998). With privatization, subsistence farmers have to move out. Before the reforms, Government bore all the transportation expenses both within and between regions and gave huge fertilizer subsidy so the prices of food grain as same for all producers. After reforms of 1990s, it was found that the cost of production has increased drastically because of high transportation costs and removal of subsidies for fertilizer, forcing farmers to sell at farm gate only. Thus the supply to market was nil. Evidence can be taken from the copper mines in Zambia, which was privatized in 1991. Large tract of land was required for development of new mines. There was often negotiation with local chiefs for land. Local people were persuaded on the trust that they will be relocated to other areas. Most often interest of local people was in variance with that of investors. Sometimes the local chiefs enter into secret deals with investors and accepted bribes as an inducement to persuade their subjects to acquiesce to investors’ demands. Impact of large scale mining on local community has been negative. There were social conflicts, destruction of livelihood, dislocation and displacement of local communities and environment degradation (Simutanya, ISS paper 165; July 2008). In case of foreign investments, it is noticed that Zambians were not given many job opportunities and people were placed from permanent to rolling contracts leading to casualization of labour. If agriculture land is given in foreign hands, it can lead to similar consequences. Foreign investors are driven by profit motive. They generally us capital intensive techniques driving labour out of work force. They also try to minimize wages to capture more profits in their hands. Profit, rather than having any impact on Zambia economy, is placed in banks or re-invested in companies outside the country. But it is also seen that with privatization, all workers came as a union, there was increase in the minimum wages. It can also be expected from agriculture sector. If all agricultural workers work in a huge tract of land then even they can coordinate themselves and demand for better wages and better working conditions. ). The economical benefits were also marginal, leading to large inequalities. In 2009, more than 80% of Zambia’s foreign exchange earnings and 15. 9% of GDP came from copper mining. (iol. co. a: Zambia copper mines: More local benefits urged; April 2010). In 2006, the contribution of mining to PAYE[1] was 54%, to VAT[2] was 45% and to employment generation was 58%. (Source: Zambia Development Authority). But Zambia fails to influence World market prices. (Source: www1. america. edu) Fluctuations in copper prices can impact the whole economy. So there is need to develop agriculture sector also as a safety net. But in which direction policy should be made is yet to be decided. The policy recommendations should be such that it should not affect the social and environmental climate of the country.